
(BeingpresentedatHarvardUniversitytheTenthAnnualEastAsiaSocietyConference,Mar.2007.) ShaoqianZhang141 【导读】当代学者一致认为,“新女性”是民国时期象征现代性和民族主义最重要的符号之一。自从1842年的鸦片战争开始,中国政治体制和文化系统都受到了打击。为了拯救岌岌可危的民族自信心,民国政府的首要任务就是重建中国,给予其一个理性的新形象。很多中国当时的革命家认为,中国封建妇女的地位颇受中国封建思想的约束,从缠足到文盲,种种现象隐喻中国本身的衰弱。中国虐待自己的女性同胞,反过来中国却被西方国家欺负。在这样的历史环境中,女性的地位、形象和命运关切着中国本身在世界、西方人和中国人心中的位置。毫不夸张地说,“新女性”和20世纪初的殖民主义、现代化、民族前途等多种问题都有密切关联。 女性的身体从而成为此时期“现代民族”的最主要标志之一。女性这个词是五四运动之后创立的。在此之前,女性被称为“妇女”。妇女这个词主要指示了女性在封建家庭的功能地位,而不是强调女性的性别特点。同时,“女性”取代“妇女”,让她成为和男性同等地位的公民,让“男”和“女”成为在西方二元思想下的共存对等体。 同时,在当时的革命热潮中,人们努力划清正派的“新女性”和和她的消极副本“摩登女儿”。后者象征着受到西方腐化思想影响的物质堕落以及贪婪的商业化女性。在1934年,蒋介石与德国希特勒联系,加强中国的军国主义思想,发展新生活运动,其任务之一就是消灭卖淫堕落从而加强对女性身体的管理。同时,在当时中国大气候的影响下,体育、女性的健美身体成为当时十分热门的现象。 本文追溯了民国新中国成立以来对女性、女性的身体的不同定义、态度和观念。建设女性的形象和建设中国自身的形象是密切相关的。如果说新女性象征着中国当时现代化的革命性,她同时也象征那个时代的茫然和焦虑。 TheNewWoman(新女性)haslongbeenidentifiedasoneofthemostcrucialsymbolsofChinesemodernityandnationalismintheRepublicanperiod(1912-1949).Indeed,itwouldnotbeanexaggerationtosaythatthefigureoftheNewWomanpermeatedalmosteverystrataoflife,cuttingacrosssocial,culturalandideologicalboundaries.Representationsofhercanbefoundinavant-gardeliterature,popularhomejournals,advertising,fashion,sportandfilm.Withdifferentembodimentsofher,the"NewWoman"illustratesthecontestedissuesthatdefinetheChineseexperienceofnationalismandmodernity. SincetheOpiumWarof1842,WesternmodernizationandimperialismchallengedexistinginstitutionsandthefoundationsofChineseculture.Therefore,thefirstinitiativeundertakenbythenewgovernmentoftheRepublicofChinawastoconstructChina'snewidentityasarationalchoiceinresponsetothecatastrophicstateofalmosteveryChineseinstitution.ManyofthereformistsfoundthepositionofChina'swomen,asindicatedbyeverythingfromConfucianaphorismstofootbindingandilliteracy,tobeacrucialindicatorofthenation'sweakness.142AsindicatedbyChinesehistorianLouiseEdwards,"thelogicwasthatChina'swomenwerelettingthenationdown-whileChina'swomenremainedweakandcrippledbyfoot-bindingandignorant,unproductive,dependant,andisolatedinthedomesticsphere,therewasnohopeforthenation."143ThesereformistsarguedthatChina,whichmistreated'itswomen'wasinturntreatedlikeawomanbystrongerWesternnations.Therefore,wecansaytheNewWomanwasatthecenterofanumberofcriticaldebatesconcerningcolonization,modernityandthefutureofthenation. YetiftheNewWomancametostandfortherevolutionarypromisesofmodernity,shewasalsothefocusforcollectivedelusionsandameetingpointforallmannerofanxieties.Conflictingpoliticalgroupsusedtheterm"NewWoman"asacatchphrase,which,dependingonwheretheyweresituated,meantsomethingdifferenttoeachgroup.IntheRepublicanperiod,womenweregivendifferentrolesfromtraditionalChina.Theybecameequalpoliticalparticipantsasmen.144Thus,theywerereleasedfromConfuciangenderhierarchiesandtheinteriorhomespaceandhadpublicrolesasthecitizensofthenewnation-state.Theideaofnation-stateallowedthewomentoconnectthemselveswiththecountryratherthanwiththeirfamily.145 Beforethemodernperiod,peopletalkedabouttheequalitybetweenmenandwomenintermsofyin阴andyang阳-bothareindispensableelementsoftheuniverse.Withyangrepresentingmale,brightandpositiveandyinrepresentingfemale,darkandnegative,theyin-yangmodelreflectstheinevitablyintertwineddualityofbeingsintheuniverse.IntraditionalChineseideologies,theyinandyangmodelisresponsiblefordividingpeopleandnaturalphenomenaintotwogendersatasubjectiveandphilosophicallevel.Thereis,however,hierarchybetweenthesetwoterms,asChinesearthistorianYangWeiwritesinherdissertation:"Thefundamentalpolarity-yinbeingfemale,dark,inferior,andsubmissiveincomparisontoyang'smaleness,brightness,superiority,andpower-waswellestablishedinChinesepaintingtraditions."146Undertheyin-yangmodel,Confucianpatriarchwasseenasnaturallygivenandwomen'sroleswererelationaltotheirfathersorhusbands.YangWetalsoarguesthatyinandyangdichotomiesalsoarticulatedas"innerandouter."Underthisideology,womenwereusuallyvisualizedandpositionedinprivateandenclosedspace.ThisethnicmodelofdominanceandsubmissionwasalsousedpoliticallyinChinesehistorysothattherulerswereregardedaspowerfulandmasculine.147Thedomesticationofwomenwasbelievedtobenecessaryastokeeptheharmonyoftheuniverseundertheyinandyangmodel. Thetermnüxing女性(translatedliterally,femalesex)firstcameintouseinthe1920s,aspartoftheMayFourthMovement'sdrivetomodernizeChinabyintroducingcolloquiallanguageinpopularliteratureandcriticism.ChinesesociologistTaniBarlownotesthat,beforethistime,womenweredescribedbytherelationaltermfunü妇女,awordwhichdenotedfamilialrolesthatweregroundedinConfuciannotionsofgenderratherthansex:Taniwrites:Nüxingoperatedasone-halfoftheWestern,exclusionary,male/femalebinary...Nüxinganditscorrelatenanxing,ormalesex,actedasamagnet,attractingarounditsuniversal,sexological,scientisticcoreapsychologizedpersonalidentitythatalloweditspossessortoactasthefulcrumforupendingConfucianismandallreceivedcategories...Inparticular,colloquialfictionestablishedsexasthecoreofanoppositionalpersonalidentityandwomanasasexologicalcategory.148 Theuseofthisoppositionalterminvolvedtheadoptionofauniversal,'scientistic',personalidentitybasedonbiologicalattributes.Moreover,itrepositioned"woman"sothatshecametobeunderstoodastheotherof"man"inaWesternizedbinaryopposition.149 Moreover,modernurbanizationinChinawascrucialasitprovidedapublicsitefortheestablishmentoftheNewWomen.Forexample,ShanghaiofferedaplaceforthetransformationofNewChinesewomen.Publicsitessuchcinemas,bars,anddancehallsproliferatedinShanghai.Thisnewtypeofurbanityallowedwomentowalkoutofinteriorspace,andthesepublicspacesalsoplayedanimportantroleintheformationofnewbodycultures.[fig1]Inadditiontothat,theriseofurbanpressandcalendarpostersallowedtheimagesofwomentobemorevisibletothepublic.PictorialmagazinessuchasTheYoungCompanion(Liangyou)soldamodernlifestylethatconsistedofthelatestfashions,make-up,Westernbrand-nameproducts,HollywoodandChinesemoviestars.MoreprogressivemagazinessuchastheLadiesJournal(Funtizazhi),afeministjournalpublishedinShanghai,becameaforumforthediscussionofsuchissuesasfreemarriage(ziyouhunyin),freedivorce(ziyoulihun),femaleemancipation(funiijiefang),education,womenintheworkplace,birthcontrol,andprostitution.150 Forthereformists,thequestionofwomen'srightsshouldextendbeyondthequestionwhethermaleandfemalehadtheequalpoliticalrights.ThepostOpiumWarculturewasastruggleofdefiningtheroleoftheNewWoman.TheprocessofconstructingappropriateidentitiesforChinesewomenwascomparabletothatofconstructingtheChinesenation'sidentities.HavingbeenaffectedbyChinesetraditionsforthousandsofyears,theoldpositionanddefinitionsofwoman'svirtuecouldnotbeoverturnedinanight.Additionally,thecolonialcultureinShanghaialsobroughtsomenegativeelementstotheimagesandmadethemascommodity.[fig2]TheModernGirlbecameanegativeconnotationofsuperficialWesternization,moralcorruptionandgreed,whichwasnotadesirableorientationforthenation-state. Underthiscircumstanceoftransformation,theimageofwomeninearlyChinesecinemaswasportrayedindifferentways.Here,Iwillmainlydiscussthreemovies,NewWoman,Goddess,andTheQueenoftheSports.Theirdifferentfatesrevealednumeroussocialproblemsindifferentareas.SowhatistheappropriateimageoftheNewWoman?Howisitthatthefemalebodycomestofigureastheprivilegedsignifierofthemodemnation?WhatdistinguishestheidealsoftheNewWomanfromthoseassociatedwiththeModemGirl?Thesearethequestionsthatthesemoviesattempttoaddress. NewurbanwomenweretheproductofwesternizationandtheNewCultureMovement."Civilizedandmodern"womenweretheleadingcharactersofmanymovies.Theyareromantic,idealistic,intelligentandreadytomaketheirownwayoflife.151Theirbeauty,gracefulcomportmentandintelligencemadethemthespectacleandtheobjectofmen'sdesire.[fig3]In1934,CaiChushengdirectedthemovieNewWoman.Theleadingcharacterofthismoviecanbetherepresentativeofnewurbanwomen,whosepersonalitywasinbetweentheNewWomanandtheModernGirl.Themaincharacter,WeiMingwasawriterandamusicteacher.Shehopedtobeafreeandstrong"newwoman"andliveonherownwithdignity.Shealsoborethecharacteristicsofthemoderngirlwithsuperficialdesireformaterialthings.[fig4]Intheend,duetohumiliationfromhermalebossandfinancialpressure,shecommittedsuicide.Herformerloverattemptedtosaveherandsenthertothehospital.Underthepersuasionofherloverandherleftwingfriend,shegainedthecouragetoliveagainandvowedforrevenge.However,thedoctorscouldnotsaveherandshefinallydiedinregretandanger. IncontrasttoWe[Ming,thewomaninGoddessisatragictraditionalwomanwhowassacrificedbytheoldmoralvalues.[fig5]GoddesswasdirectedbyWuYonggangin1934.Thestorywasaboutaself-sacrificingwomanwhoseonlymissionwastoprovidehersonwithaneducation.Shewasaprostituteandalsoforcedbyagamblertobehismistress.Bothsheandhersonreceivedmuchpressureasherjobwaslookeddownupon.Theoldschoolchairman,whowasamorallyuprightfigure,understoodhersituationandregardedhervirtueasamother.Intheendofthemovie,thechairmanoftheschoolvisitedherinjail(aftershekilledthegamblerwhohadstolenallhersavingsforherson'seducation)andpromisedtotakecareofhersonashisown.Goddessindicatesthatthewomanofbadreputationwasunmercifullypressedinthesociety.Shewasevenwillingtoeraseherself.Shetoldthechairmanofschoolintheend:"Whenmysongrowsup,pleasetellhimthathismotherdiedlongago,sothathewillneverknowthathehadamotherlikeme."Thesetwofilms:TheNewWomanandGoddessrevealthesociallyestablishedsexualdifferencewhichcontrolsthefatesofcharacters.Themiserablefatesofthesewomen,whetheramodernwomanlikeWeiMingoratraditionalwomanliketheoneinGoddess,reflectthecrisisofChinaitself.Therefore,women'sbodiesbecamethemeansforrefiguringChina'sposition,bothinrelationtotheWestandtoitself. InsearchforChina'snewidentityandasreactiontothepressurefromtheChineseCommunistParty,in1934,ChiangKai-sheklaunchedtheNewLifeMovement.ProstituteswereclearlymarkedofffromtheNewLifeMovementandrelegatedtothecategoryofurbancriminals.ChiangKai-shekproposedamodelof"goodwifeandgoodmother."152ThevaluesofConfucianismwereusedagainastool,toconstructmasspsychology.AsenseofnationalismwaswrappedintheNeo-Confucianlineofthought.Atthesametime,physicaleducationandsportbecameanimportantinstrumentthroughwhichthisbodywasshapedandarticulated.ChiangKai-sheksaid:"Ahealthycontainsahealthyspirit.Ahealthycitizenshipconstitutesahealthynation.Ahealthynationproducesahealthyculture.Lookingathistory,weakpeopleandweaknationshaveneversurvived.OurRepublicunderstandsthatChinesesportneedstobepromotedsoastorestoreourcultureandsaveourcountry...IfwewantourcountrytobeasstrongandasgreatastheWesterncountrieswemustdevelopsport...Astrongnationwillbecapableofcompetingwithothernationsintheworld...Sodevelopoursportforourcountry'ssake."153SoonafterthisspeechChiangKai-shekagainsingledoutphysicaleducationas"thenation'shighestpriority."154Accordingly,hesuggestedthatrestraintsonthefemalebodymustend.Womenshouldbefittoworkforthegoodofthenation.[fig6]The1930switnessedtheemergenceoffemalesportstarssuchastheswimmerYangXiuqiong.Imagesofwomenathletesfillednewspapersandmagazines.ManyofthepopularsportsjournalssuchasQinFenSportsMonthly(QinFentiyuyuebao)carriedillustrationswhichservedtoemphasizethephysicalsuperiorityofthe'newbeauty'overtheolder,delicatelady. Inthisprogressiveideology,theNewWomanisconceivedassomeonewhoisfiercelyindependent,robustandintenselynationalistic.InanarticleonAmericanwomenpublishedinNewYouth155in1918,thefamousChineseintellectualHuShiestablishedtheparametersofthedebate,emphasizingtheNewWoman'sintellectualandmoralsuperiorityoverthemerelyfashionablewoman: 'NewWoman'isanewword,anditdesignatesanewkindofwoman[xinpaldefunu],whoisextremelyintenseinherspeech,whotendstowardstheextremeinheractions,whodoesn'tbelieveinreligionoradheretorulesofconduct[lifa],yetwhoisanextremelygoodthinkerandhasextremelyhighmorals.Ofcourseamongstthemthereareplentyoffake'newwomen.'Theirwordsdon'tmatchtheirintentions:whattheydoiscompletelyatoddswithwhattheysay.156 Throughthispassage,wecanseethattheauthenticNewWomanisdefinedbyherinnerqualitiesandheroverridingcommitmenttothehighercauseofthenation.Physicaleducationofthenewwomanor,morespecifically,sportbecameanimportantinstrumentthroughwhichthisbodywasshapedandarticulated.TheNationalistGovernmentseizedonsportsasapoliticaltoolforrallyingthenation. ThereisperhapsnobetterexampleofthisthanthefilmQueenofSportswhichmadeitsdebutinChinesecinemasin1934.[fig7]Muchofitshistoricalimportanceresidesinthefactthatitwasoneofthefirstfilmstoexploretheissueoffeminineidentitywithintherubricofcompetitivewomen'ssport.QueenofSportstellsthestoryofLinYing,afeistysprinterfromawealthyruralfamilywhoenrollsinasportscollegeforfemaleathletesinShanghai.Inspiredbyherteachers,sheinitiallyworkshardandachievesimpressiveresultsonthesport'sfield.Butalas,sheisgraduallyspoiledbyherearlysuccess.Afterfindingherselfincompromisingsituation,sheisrescuedbyherhandsomebutdedicatedcoach,andshevowstochangeherways.Eventually,sheisconvincedtoraceinthefinalraceontheinsistenceofhercoachandtheschoolheadmasterwhobothremindLinYingofherpatrioticdutytoperformonthefield.Shehascometotherealizationthattheselfishpursuitofindividualgloryiswrongandresolvestoserveothersasanordinaryteacherofphysicaleducation.[fig8]Atonelevel,QueenofSportsisafilmthatseekstoupholdthebasicideathatawomanshouldnotbeashamedofherbody.Atthesportsschool,thefemaleathletesareregularlyseenintheactsofexercisingandcleaning.Moreprecisely,QueenofSportsattemptstoshowhowthefemalebodycanbedevelopedinwaysthatcancontributetocollectiveandnationalliberation. 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Fig2.AdvertisementforYongtaiheTobaccoCompany,byNiGeng'ye,1932.(ExampleoftheModernGirl). Fig3.SnapshotfromTheNewWoman,dir.CaiChusheng,starredbyRuanLingyu,1934. Fig4.SnapshotfromTheNewWoman,dir.CaiChusheng,starredbyRuanLingyu,1934. Fig5.SnapshotfromTheGoddess,dir.WuYonggang,starredbyRuanLingyu,1934. Fig6.Photooffemaleathletesin1930s,1936,photographerunknown,afterLinglong[Delicate]:28(1936). Fig7.SnapshotfromQueenofSports,dir.SunYu,starredbyLiLili,1934. Fig8.SnapshotfromQueenofSports,dir.SunYu,starredbyLiLili,1934.