（Being presented at Harvard University the Tenth Annual East Asia Society Conference, Mar. 2007. ）

　　Shaoqian Zhang141

　　【导读】当代学者一致认为，“新女性”是民国时期象征现代性和民族主义最重要的符号之一。自从1842年的鸦片战争开始，中国政治体制和文化系统都受到了打击。为了拯救岌岌可危的民族自信心，民国政府的首要任务就是重建中国，给予其一个理性的新形象。很多中国当时的革命家认为，中国封建妇女的地位颇受中国封建思想的约束，从缠足到文盲，种种现象隐喻中国本身的衰弱。中国虐待自己的女性同胞，反过来中国却被西方国家欺负。在这样的历史环境中，女性的地位、形象和命运关切着中国本身在世界、西方人和中国人心中的位置。毫不夸张地说，“新女性”和20世纪初的殖民主义、现代化、民族前途等多种问题都有密切关联。

　　女性的身体从而成为此时期“现代民族”的最主要标志之一。女性这个词是五四运动之后创立的。在此之前，女性被称为“妇女”。妇女这个词主要指示了女性在封建家庭的功能地位，而不是强调女性的性别特点。同时，“女性”取代“妇女”，让她成为和男性同等地位的公民，让“男”和“女”成为在西方二元思想下的共存对等体。

　　同时，在当时的革命热潮中，人们努力划清正派的“新女性”和和她的消极副本“摩登女儿”。后者象征着受到西方腐化思想影响的物质堕落以及贪婪的商业化女性。在1934年，蒋介石与德国希特勒联系，加强中国的军国主义思想，发展新生活运动，其任务之一就是消灭卖淫堕落从而加强对女性身体的管理。同时，在当时中国大气候的影响下，体育、女性的健美身体成为当时十分热门的现象。

　　本文追溯了民国新中国成立以来对女性、女性的身体的不同定义、态度和观念。建设女性的形象和建设中国自身的形象是密切相关的。如果说新女性象征着中国当时现代化的革命性，她同时也象征那个时代的茫然和焦虑。

　　The New Woman （新女性） has long been identified as one of the most crucial symbols of Chinese modernity and nationalism in the Republican period （ 1912 - 1949）. Indeed, it would not be an exaggeration to say that the figure of the New Woman permeated almost every strata of life, cutting across social, cultural and ideological boundaries. Representations of her can be found in avant - garde literature,popular home journals, advertising, fashion, sport and film. With different embodiments of her, the " New Woman" illustrates the contested issues that define the Chinese experience of nationalism and modernity.

　　Since the Opium War of 1842, Western modernization and imperialism challenged existing institutions and the foundations of Chinese culture. Therefore, the first initiative undertaken by the new government of the Republic of China was to construct China's new identity as a rational choice in response to the catastrophic state of almost every Chinese institution. Many of the reformists found the position of China's women, as indicated by everything from Confucian aphorisms to footbinding and illiteracy, to be a crucial indicator of the nation's weakness.142 As indicated by Chinese historian Louise Edwards, "the logic was that China's women were letting the nation down - while China's women remained weak and crippled by foot - binding and ignorant, unproductive, dependant, and isolated in the domestic sphere, there was no hope for the nation."143These reformists argued that China, which mistreated 'its women' was in turn treated like a woman by stronger Western nations. Therefore, we can say the New Woman was at the center of a number of critical debates concerning colonization, modernity and the future of the nation.

　　Yet if the New Woman came to stand for the revolutionary promises of modernity, she was also the focus for collective delusions and a meeting point for all manner of anxieties. Conflicting political groups used the term "New Woman" as a catch phrase, which, depending on where they were situated, meant something different to each group. In the Republican period, women were given different roles from traditional China. They became equal political participants as men.144Thus, they were released from Confucian gender hierarchies and the interior home space and had public roles as the citizens of the new nation - state. The idea of nation - state allowed the women to connect themselves with the country rather than with their family.145

　Before the modern period, people talked about the equality between men and women in terms of yin 阴 and yang 阳 - both are indispensable elements of the universe. With yang representing male, bright and positive and yin representing female, dark and negative,the yin - yang model reflects the inevitably intertwined duality of beings in the universe. In traditional Chinese ideologies, the yin and yang model is responsible for dividing people and natural phenomena into two genders at a subjective and philosophical level. There is,however, hierarchy between these two terms, as Chinese art historian Yang Wei writes in her dissertation: "The fundamental polarity - yin being female, dark, inferior, and submissive in comparison to yang's maleness, brightness, superiority, and power - was well established in Chinese painting traditions."146Under the yin - yang model, Confucian patriarch was seen as naturally given and women's roles were relational to their fathers or husbands. Yang Wet also argues that yin and yang dichotomies also articulated as "inner and outer." Under this ideology, women were usually visualized and positioned in private and enclosed space. This ethnic model of dominance and submission was also used politically in Chinese history so that the rulers were regarded as powerful and masculine.147 The domestication of women was believed to be necessary as to keep the harmony of the universe under the yin and yang model.

　　The term nüxing女性 （translated literally, female sex） first came into use in the 1920s, as part of the May Fourth Movement's drive to modernize China by introducing colloquial language in popular literature and criticism. Chinese sociologist Tani Barlow notes that, before this time, women were described by the relational term funü妇女, a word which denoted familial roles that were grounded in Confucian notions of gender rather than sex: Tani writes:

Nüxing operated as one - half of the Western, exclusionary,male/female binary... Nüxing and its correlate nanxing, or male sex, acted as a magnet, attracting around its universal, sexological, scientistic core a psychologized personal identity that allowed its possessor to act as the fulcrum for upending Confucianism and all received categories... In particular, colloquial fiction established sex as the core of an oppositional personal identity and woman as a sexological category.148

　　The use of this oppositional term involved the adoption of a universal, 'scientistic', personal identity based on biological attributes.Moreover, it repositioned "woman" so that she came to be understood as the other of "man" in a Westernized binary opposition. 149

　　Moreover, modern urbanization in China was crucial as it provided a public site for the establishment of the New Women. For example, Shanghai offered a place for the transformation of New Chinese women. Public sites such cinemas, bars, and dance halls proliferated in Shanghai. This new type of urbanity allowed women to walk out of interior space, and these public spaces also played an important role in the formation of new body cultures. [fig 1] In addition to that, the rise of urban press and calendar posters allowed the images of women to be more visible to the public. Pictorial magazines such as The Young Companion （Liangyou） sold a modern lifestyle that consisted of the latest fashions, make - up, Western brand - name products, Hollywood and Chinese movie stars. More progressive magazines such as the Ladies Journal （Funti zazhi）, a feminist journal published in Shanghai, became a forum for the discussion of such issues as free marriage （ziyou hunyin）, free divorce （ziyou lihun）, female emancipation （funii jiefang）, education, women in the workplace, birth control, and prostitution.150

　　For the reformists, the question of women's rights should extend beyond the question whether male and female had the equal political rights. The post Opium War culture was a struggle of defining the role of the New Woman. The process of constructing appropriate identities for Chinese women was comparable to that of constructing the Chinese nation's identities. Having been affected by Chinese traditions for thousands of years, the old position and definitions of woman's virtue could not be overturned in a night. Additionally, the colonial culture in Shanghai also brought some negative elements to the images and made them as commodity. [fig 2] The Modern Girl became a negative connotation of superficial Westernization, moral corruption and greed,which was not a desirable orientation for the nation - state.

　　Under this circumstance of transformation, the image of women in early Chinese cinemas was portrayed in different ways. Here, I will mainly discuss three movies, New Woman, Goddess, and The Queen of the Sports. Their different fates revealed numerous social problems in different areas. So what is the appropriate image of the New Woman? How is it that the female body comes to figure as the privileged signifier of the modem nation? What distinguishes the ideals of the New Woman from those associated with the Modem Girl? These are the questions that these movies attempt to address.

　　New urban women were the product of westernization and the New Culture Movement. "Civilized and modern" women were the leading characters of many movies. They are romantic, idealistic, intelligent and ready to make their own way of life.151Their beauty,graceful comportment and intelligence made them the spectacle and the object of men's desire. [fig 3] In 1934, Cai Chusheng directed the movie New Woman. The leading character of this movie can be the representative of new urban women, whose personality was in between the New Woman and the Modern Girl. The main character, Wei Ming was a writer and a music teacher. She hoped to be a free and strong "new woman" and live on her own with dignity. She also bore the characteristics of the modern girl with superficial desire for material things. [fig 4] In the end, due to humiliation from her male boss and financial pressure, she committed suicide. Her former lover attempted to save her and sent her to the hospital. Under the persuasion of her lover and her leftwing friend, she gained the courage to live again and vowed for revenge. However, the doctors could not save her and she finally died in regret and anger.

　　In contrast to We[ Ming, the woman in Goddess is a tragic traditional woman who was sacrificed by the old moral values. [fig 5]Goddess was directed by Wu Yonggang in 1934. The story was about a self-sacrificing woman whose only mission was to provide her son with an education. She was a prostitute and also forced by a gambler to be his mistress. Both she and her son received much pressure as her job was looked down upon. The old school chairman, who was a morally upright figure, understood her situation and regarded her virtue as a mother. In the end of the movie, the chairman of the school visited her in jail （after she killed the gambler who had stolen all her savings for her son's education） and promised to take care of her son as his own. Goddess indicates that the woman of bad reputation was unmercifully pressed in the society. She was even willing to erase herself. She told the chairman of school in the end: "When my son grows up, please tell him that his mother died long ago, so that he will never know that he had a mother like me." These two films: The New Woman and Goddess reveal the socially established sexual difference which controls the fates of characters. The miserable fates of these women, whether a modern woman like Wei Ming or a traditional woman like the one in Goddess, reflect the crisis of China itself. Therefore, women's bodies became the means for refiguring China's position, both in relation to the West and to itself.

　 In search for China's new identity and as reaction to the pressure from the Chinese Communist Party, in 1934, Chiang Kai - shek launched the New Life Movement. Prostitutes were clearly marked off from the New Life Movement and relegated to the category of urban criminals. Chiang Kai -shek proposed a model of " good wife and good mother."152The values of Confucianism were used again as tool, to construct mass psychology. A sense of nationalism was wrapped in the Neo - Confucian line of thought. At the same time, physical education and sport became an important instrument through which this body was shaped and articulated. Chiang Kai - shek said: "A healthy contains a healthy spirit. A healthy citizenship constitutes a healthy nation. A healthy nation produces a healthy culture. Looking at history, weak people and weak nations have never survived. Our Republic understands that Chinese sport needs to be promoted so as to restore our culture and save our country... If we want our country to be as strong and as great as the Western countries we must develop sport...A strong nation will be capable of competing with other nations in the world... So develop our sport for our country's sake."153 Soon after this speech Chiang Kai - shek again singled out physical education as "the nation's highest priority."154Accordingly, he suggested that restraints on the female body must end. Women should be fit to work for the good of the nation. [fig 6] The 1930s witnessed the emergence of female sport stars such as the swimmer Yang Xiuqiong. Images of women athletes filled newspapers and magazines. Many of the popular sports journals such as Qin Fen Sports Monthly （Qin Fen tiyu yuebao）carried illustrations which served to emphasize the physical superiority of the 'new beauty' over the older, delicate lady.

　 In this progressive ideology, the New Woman is conceived as someone who is fiercely independent, robust and intensely nationalistic. In an article on American women published in New Youth155 in 1918, the famous Chinese intellectual Hu Shi established the parameters of the debate, emphasizing the New Woman's intellectual and moral superiority over the merely fashionable woman:

　　'New Woman' is a new word, and it designates a new kind of woman [xin pal de funu], who is extremely intense in her speech, who tends towards the extreme in her actions, who doesn't believe in religion or adhere to rules of conduct [lifa] ,yet who is an extremely good thinker and has extremely high morals. Of course amongst them there are plenty of fake 'new women.' Their words don't match their intentions: what they do is completely at odds with what they say.156

　　Through this passage, we can see that the authentic New Woman is defined by her inner qualities and her overriding commitment to the higher cause of the nation. Physical education of the new woman or, more specifically, sport became an important instrument through which this body was shaped and articulated. The Nationalist Government seized on sports as a political tool for rallying the nation.

　　There is perhaps no better example of this than the film Queen of Sports which made its debut in Chinese cinemas in 1934. [fig 7]Much of its historical importance resides in the fact that it was one of the first films to explore the issue of feminine identity within the rubric of competitive women's sport. Queen of Sports tells the story of Lin Ying, a feisty sprinter from a wealthy rural family who enrolls in a sports college for female athletes in Shanghai. Inspired by her teachers, she initially works hard and achieves impressive results on the sport's field. But alas, she is gradually spoiled by her early success.After finding her self in compromising situation, she is rescued by her handsome but dedicated coach, and she vows to change her ways. Eventually, she is convinced to race in the final race on the insistence of her coach and the school headmaster who both remind Lin Ying of her patriotic duty to perform on the field. She has come to the realization that the selfish pursuit of individual glory is wrong and resolves to serve others as an ordinary teacher of physical education. [fig 8] At one level, Queen of Sports is a film that seeks to uphold the basic idea that a woman should not be ashamed of her body. At the sports school, the female athletes are regularly seen in the acts of exercising and cleaning. More precisely, Queen of Sports attempts to show how the female body can be developed in ways that can contribute to collective and national liberation.

　　These three movies help to illustrate that during the first three decades of the twentieth century, the figure of the New Woman was part of a cultural and political discourse that made possible the imagining of a new nation in China. But as we have tried to show, the image of the nation sought by those who claimed to speak in her name, remained a source of constant struggle. This tension between the contending images of the New Woman reveals the contradictions that define the Chinese experience of modernity and nationalism.

Filmography

　　Zhifen shichang脂粉市场[Cosmetics Market]，Tian Han田汉dir., 1933．

　　Jiemeihua姊妹花[Sister Flowers]，Zheng Zhengqiu郑正秋dir.，1934．

　　Shenna神女[Goddess]，Wu Yonggang吴永刚dir.，1934.

　　Tiyu huanghou体育皇后[Queen of Spots]，Sun Yu孙瑜dir.，1934．

　　Xinnuxing新女性[New Women]，Cai Chusheng蔡楚生dir.，1935．

　　Malu tianshi马路天使[Street Angel]，Yuan Muzhi袁牧之dir., 1937.

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缺八张图

Fig 1. Street Vendor Selling Advertisement Posters of Women, Photographer unknown, 1936, after Meishu shengshuo [Arts and Life] : 26（May 1936）.

　　Fig 2. Advertisement for Yongtaihe Tobacco Company, by Ni Geng'ye, 1932.（Example of the Modern Girl）.

　　Fig 3. Snapshot from The New Woman, dir. Cai Chusheng, starred by Ruan Lingyu, 1934.

　　Fig 4. Snapshot from The New Woman, dir. Cai Chusheng, starred by Ruan Lingyu, 1934.

　　Fig 5. Snapshot from The Goddess, dir. Wu Yonggang, starred by Ruan Lingyu, 1934.

　　Fig 6. Photo of female athletes in 1930s, 1936, photographer unknown, after Linglong [Delicate] : 28 （1936）.

　　Fig 7. Snapshot from Queen of Sports, dir. Sun Yu, starred by Li Lili, 1934.

　　Fig 8. Snapshot from Queen of Sports, dir. Sun Yu, starred by Li Lili, 1934.